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Religion - The strongest power
In this era of economic liberalism and unquestioning belief in the power of market forces there is a tendency to think of every individual as a ‘homo economicus’, a person wholly engaged in the rational pursuit of self-interest. But looking after number one is just a part of human nature: equally important are such seemingly outmoded qualities as altruism and faith © By Johan van Workum
As history shows, religious faith or belief can often prove to be a much stronger force than considerations of pure self-interest. In some circumstances people will even sacrifice their life for their faith. Irrespective of whether this powerful force works for the good or bad of mankind, it would be a great mistake to think that the globalisation and economisation of thought has diminished religion’s importance. Religion continues to act as one of the major well-springs of human behaviour. Man is incurably religious although the form and object of his religious feelings may change over time.
The role of religion in respect to peace-building and conflict can often be ambiguous. As the following pages show, religious institutions such as churches are frequently to be found at the heart of conflict prevention and peace-building activities. However, there are also examples of religious institutions failing to promote peace and even fanning the flames of conflict.
In the last decade of the 20th century people slaughtered each other in Rwanda and Burundi, apparently for political and/or ethnic reasons. However, most of the slaughterers were Christians, and many were of the same, Roman Catholic, denomination. As such they acted against their religious convictions. Subsequently the Church had major problems reconciling itself with events. How was it possible that the Church and religion generally had so signally failed to prevent the bloodshed? How was it possible that Church-goers and even priests could have participated in the slaughter? Several missionaries from abroad left the country in disillusion, others failed to return to their posts while an African Roman Catholic priest who emigrated to Belgium, is suspected of involvement in the slaughter and is said to be receiving the protection of church authorities in his new country. The major international Christian denominations are now discredited and seem to be losing ground to local churches and sects.
Historically it seems that religion has more often acted to fuel conflicts between peoples and nations than to appease them. In itself this is strange, because in their spirit and their fundamental principles almost all religions aim at peace and co-operation between all human beings. However, wanting the best for mankind clearly does not prevent the devout from turning to religion for help in their worldly struggles, nor does it prevent religious leaders blessing armies and their weapons before they go into battle.
Because Christianity and Islam are the major world religions it is useful to review the place of peace and conflict in their respective histories. In Europe, it is clear that the Reformation has been the source of many violent conflicts. The Peace of Augsburg in 1555 -stating that the religion of the prince shall be the religion in his principality- could not prevent the outbreak of the Thirty Years War half a century later. When the weapons were finally laid down following the Treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, large parts of German speaking Europe had been depopulated on a scale comparable with an outbreak of plague, while the political map of Europe changed beyond recognition. The medieval Roman Empire had ended and peoples, princes and other statesmen had seemingly come to accept the existence of religious differences both between and within countries. Some half a millennium earlier Pope Urbanus II called a crusade to free the Holy Land from Islam. Modern historians think one of his objectives was to put an end to the wars and violence within Europe by presenting his quarrelsome knights with an external enemy.
And yet the roots of Christianity are clearly non-political. In the sense that Jesus Christ taught that his Kingdom is not ‘of this world’, he was what we would call today a spiritual king, not a king with armies or ‘King of Hosts’: ‘Don’t you think my father would send me immediately over twelve legions of angels when I would ask Him?’ However, this phase in Christianity lasted for only three centuries, until the Roman emperor Constantine adopted Christianity as the religion of the empire. This linkage of religion with politics was soon followed by a corresponding political intervention in religious matters. One of the main contemporary theological debates focused on the humanity of Christ: was Christ only man, or did he also have a second Divine nature? In 325, fearing that the debate would lead to divisions in his empire, Constantine instigated the Council of Nicea and began to exert pressure in favour of the majority view in favour of the dual natured Christ. Because Constantine and his successors later suppressed the minority, Arian, line, the modern ‘Credo’ presents Christ as both God and man, except in those areas which were beyond the political reach of the empire such as the Coptic churches of Ethiopia.
Violence and conflict also feature large in the history of Islam, which like Christianity has its roots in Judaism. Unlike Christianity, Islam was from the outset both a spiritual and a political movement. The Prophet was not only a religious leader and founder of a world religion, but also a political leader, conqueror and founder of the Arab-Islamic empire.
In most countries the principle of partition between church (the religious institutions) and state (the political institutions) developed during the last two centuries. It is a principle that fits well with the tenets of Christianity but is more alien to the old Islamic countries. The concept of Jihad -the holy war for promoting Islam- encompasses both the armed struggle and missionary work. It aims to spread and propagate Islam both as a spiritual and as a political force. At the same time, preaching other religions within Islamic society is forbidden and believers who renounced their faith were originally subject to capital punishment - like a deserter in war. Today, in many Islamic countries Sharia -the introduction of the (religious) Islamic laws into the state laws- is widely debated.
But even in Europe the partition of church and state is not complete in all countries. In Great Britain, for example, the Sovereign is both head of state and head of the Church of England. Thus, in 1995 the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II was frequently celebrated in cathedrals with a mixture of religious, national and military ceremonies. The Scandinavian countries also have (Lutheran) state churches. In Greece, where the Greek Christian orthodox religion is a national religion, proselytising by other Christian churches is an offence.
Religion is a powerful force and its power is undiminished. The names of most political revolutionaries live on in history, but the reputations of religious revolutionaries can endure for millennia: Confucius, Moses, Buddha, Christ, Paul, Mohammed. Linking religion and (political) power is an explosive mixture, even when the religion in question has its roots in doctrines of love and peace-building.
In practice religion, together with ethnicity, language, class and a common history, is a main element in building the collective identity of a people. Religion helps define and distinguish the ‘in’ group from the ‘out’ group, the ‘we from the ‘you’: it is both inclusive and exclusive. Each of these elements can help catalyse social or political tensions into an open conflict and then subsequently act as a barrier, prolonging divisions even where the social or political tensions can easily be resolved.
In Israel and the Middle East, all five elements -religion, ethnicity, language, class and history- are active. In another hotbed of conflict, Northern Ireland, it is mainly religion and class; in Bosnia Herzegovina it is history and religion; in Kosovo and Chechnya, religion, history and language; in Rwanda, ethnicity and to a lesser degree, class and history; in Cyprus religion, ethnicity and also history; in East Java class and religion; in Ambon and Afghanistan, religion and ethnicity; in the Lake district of Africa and in Sierra Leone it seems to be mainly ethnic. In all these areas, social or purely political tensions are a condition for triggering conflict, but, as we have said, resolving those tensions does not automatically mean an end to the conflict.
But despite all its dangers, religion can also be a very strong force for peace-building and conflict resolution. Religion can provide a platform from which to tackle other causes of conflict such as social tensions, ethnicity, language, and history. Religion is a powerful agency of peace because virtually every world religion teaches the principles of peace, justice, love, humanity and co-operation. Some relatively young religions, such as the Baha’i and the Sufi movements, are even founded on the idea that in these fundamental principles, all religions have the same message.
Consequently, religion has several faces. In one respect it is a force for group identity, proselytising, ‘holy’ war and dictatorial fundamentalism, but it can also be a force working for a cosmopolitan humanity, peace, love and community. In its positive aspect, religion provides people with a common language of belief. However, to realise religion’s potential for peace-building, it is first necessary to remove it from the hands of the politicians. Only in this way it is possible to counteract its negative potential as the provider of an exclusive and divisive group identity in situations of conflict.
As a first step it is important to reverse the decision of Emperor Constantine. No one knows what would have become of Christianity had Constantine not made it the state religion of the Roman Empire. Today we have numerous practical examples of what happens when the roles of church and state are separated. Today, churches function mainly as elements of civil society. Freed from political powers the authentic spiritual message gets new credibility. The aims of that message remain political, but they are not the politics of self- or group-interest. Accordingly, the religiously motivated movement is less likely to be involved directly in the political system. In this chapter the reader will find several examples of the liberated power of religion at work. Most of them involve activities to try to bring reconciliation after a period of war, suppression or violence.
It is little wonder that United Nations agencies and non-governmental organisations are paying increasing attention to joint projects with religious institutions and networks. UNESCO has set up a programme examining the role of religion and is convinced of its value as a source of insight and ethical valour. In 1994, UNESCO organised a conference in Barcelona on religion’s contribution ‘to the culture of peace’. Its final declaration appeals ‘for sincere acts of repentance and mutual forgiveness, both personally and collectively, to one another, to humanity in general, and to Earth and all living beings. Religious people have too often betrayed the high ideals they themselves have preached.’ The conference called upon the different religious and cultural traditions to join hands ‘in spreading the message of peace’.
In February 1994, the 7th World Religions Conference was held in New Delhi. In a declaration sent to the secretary general of the UN, the conference underlined the policy of ‘preventive diplomacy’ aimed at preventing the escalation of conflicts and violence. The participants offered their services as mediators, negotiators and facilitators of non-violent conflict prevention and reconciliation.
Established in 1948, the World Council of Churches (WCC) is an ecumenical movement of Christian churches which is concerned not only with matters of faith but increasingly with social concerns such as the promotion of justice and peace. Examples of its activities are to be found in the following chapters of this book.
The WCRP (World Conference on Religion and Peace) considers peace as its core ‘business’. Originally an initiative of religious leaders from Japan, the United States and India, it held its first conference in 1970 in Kyoto, Japan. By forming groups on local levels it aims to bridge religious divides in different regions and communities. In the 1980s, the WCRP established local groups in the Punjab in India with Hindu, Muslim and Sikh memberships. In the 1990s it has been active in Sierra Leone, Kosovo and Indonesia - home of WCRP President, Dr. Abdurrahman Wahid. The Roman Catholic organisation Pax Christi is also active in the Caucasus and the Balkans.
Mention should also be made of the International Network of Engaged Buddhists (INEB), headed by Sulak Sivaraksa from Siam (Sulak prefers to speak of Siam rather than ‘Thailand’ because the latter name suggests that there is only one ethnic group in Siam). INEB has national and or regional groups in over thirty countries, including both the traditional Buddhist countries and the diaspora. This movement counters the oft-heard accusation that Buddhists are only concerned with their personal salvation and lack any wider social commitment. INEB condemns consumerism and selfishness - two main characteristics of contemporary Western culture.
The violent inner-city neighbourhoods in the United States provide a further challenge which has been met by religious initiatives. Here, community centres supported by local interfaith groups have helped to rebuild peaceful relations and end the poverty that feeds the violence. Also in America, the Chicago World Parliament of Religions (CWPR), inaugurated in 1893, commemorated its centennial with a ‘Call to Guiding Institutions’ - religious, governmental, corporate, educational, and media - to offer gifts of service which would make long term differences in the world.
The Fellowship of Reconciliation is an international interfaith organisation with local chapters which organises denominational fellowships - for example, the Buddhist Peace Fellowship, and the Jewish Peace Fellowship. It promotes programmes and activities centred on the themes of peace, disarmament and racial and economic justice.
Reconciliation is of course at the heart of the peace-building process but there exist some significant differences in the role given to the concept in different religions. In the Christian faith, for example, reconciliation is a central issue but it is embedded in a context of regret, asking forgiveness, forgiving, and repentance. In this way it can produce justice. But when church leaders take a neutral position during periods of repression and later start preaching reconciliation the chances of true reconciliation and real justice are remote. So too, when several parties are responsible for a conflict and one will not acknowledge its share of responsibility or show repentance, there is little chance of a successful one-sided ‘reconciliation’ being successful. South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission provides a very interesting example in this respect.
The following pages present some examples of the power of religion as a force for peace. There is the example of the World Council of Churches, which in the 1990s launched several programmes in reaction to the upheaval and violence in that followed the collapse of the Soviet Union. In Cambodia, the Buddhist Dammayietra Centre in Phnom Penh trains monks, nuns and laypersons for annual interfaith pilgrimages to end violence. The ‘pilgrimages of truth’ were organised between 1992 and 1997, aimed at breaking the cycle of retaliation, hatred and revenge through non-violence and the Buddhist concept of compassion. In Kenya, the National Church Council launched a multi-faceted programme to press for peace and reconciliation among the rival groups in a reaction to the flare-up of ethnic violence. The final example describes the contribution of church workers to the still fragile democracy and peace in Guatemala.
Healing a Nation’s Wounds - Reconciliation on the road to democracy, Walter Wink. Life and Peace Institute, 1997.
The Churches Role as Agents of Peace and Development (series), Life and Peace Institute (with issues on Costa Rica, Argentina, Zimbabwe, Brazil).
Power and Peace - Statements on peace and authority of the churches. Life and Peace Institute, 1998.
A History of the World Conference on Religion and Peace, Homer A. Jack. WCRP.
Risking Peace - Reconciliation at the heart of our mission. Publication for the Second European Ecumenical Assembly in Graz, 1997.
Global Responsibility - In search of a new world ethic, Hans Küng. Continuum Pub Group, 1993.
Role of Religion - Peace and Conflict Issues Series, UNESCO Publishing, 1996.
Religion and Development - Towards an integrated approach, Philip Quarles van Ufford, Matthew Schoffeleers (ed.). Free University Press, Amsterdam 1988.
Christian Peacemaking - From heritage to hope, Daniel L. Buttery. Judson Pr. 1994.
The God of Peace - Toward a theology of nonviolence, John Dear, Jim Douglass (designer). Orbis Books 1994.
The Art of Forgiveness - Theological Reflections on Healing and Reconciliation, Geiko Müller-Fahrenholz. WCC Publications, Geneva, 1996.
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